refactor: compile bytecode using the Electron main process or renderer process rather then via the ELECTRON_RUN_AS_NODE

bin/bytecode-compiler.cjs

@@ -0,0 +1,15 @@
+const vm = require('node:vm')
+const v8 = require('node:v8')
+
+v8.setFlagsFromString('--no-lazy')
+v8.setFlagsFromString('--no-flush-bytecode')
+
+const params = ['exports', 'require', 'module', '__filename', '__dirname']
+
+module.exports = function compile(code) {
+  if (typeof code !== 'string') throw new TypeError('Compilation source must be a string')
+  const { cachedData } = vm.compileFunction(code, params, { produceCachedData: true })
+  if (!Buffer.isBuffer(cachedData)) throw new Error('V8 did not produce cached data')
+  // Explicit wire format works across both Node IPC and Electron structured clone.
+  return { sourceLength: code.length, cachedData: cachedData.toString('base64') }
+}

bin/electron-bytecode-main.cjs

@@ -0,0 +1,107 @@
+const { app, BrowserWindow, ipcMain } = require('electron')
+const path = require('node:path')
+const RpcPeer = require('./rpc-peer.cjs')
+const compile = require('./bytecode-compiler.cjs')
+
+if (process.platform === 'darwin') {
+  app.dock.hide()
+}
+
+const channel = 'electron-vite:bytecode:rpc'
+const readyChannel = 'electron-vite:bytecode:ready'
+let win
+let rendererRPC
+let stopping = false
+
+function fail(error) {
+  console.error(error)
+  parentRPC.close(error)
+  rendererRPC?.close(error)
+  app.exit(1)
+}
+
+const parentRPC = new RpcPeer(
+  message =>
+    new Promise((resolve, reject) => {
+      if (!process.connected || !process.send) return reject(new Error('Parent IPC is disconnected'))
+      process.send(message, error => (error ? reject(error) : resolve()))
+    })
+)
+
+function createRenderer() {
+  return new Promise((resolve, reject) => {
+    let ready = false
+    const timer = setTimeout(() => finish(new Error('Compiler preload readiness timed out')), 30000)
+    function finish(error) {
+      clearTimeout(timer)
+      ipcMain.removeListener(readyChannel, onReady)
+      if (error) reject(error)
+      else {
+        ready = true
+        resolve()
+      }
+    }
+    function onReady(event) {
+      if (event.sender === win.webContents) finish()
+    }
+    function onFailure(error) {
+      if (stopping) return
+      if (ready) fail(error)
+      else finish(error)
+    }
+    ipcMain.on(readyChannel, onReady)
+    win = new BrowserWindow({
+      show: false,
+      webPreferences: {
+        preload: path.join(__dirname, 'electron-bytecode-preload.cjs'),
+        sandbox: false,
+        contextIsolation: true
+      }
+    })
+    rendererRPC = new RpcPeer(message => {
+      if (win.isDestroyed()) throw new Error('Compiler window is closed')
+      win.webContents.send(channel, message)
+    })
+    ipcMain.on(channel, (event, message) => {
+      if (!win.isDestroyed() && event.sender === win.webContents) void rendererRPC.receive(message)
+    })
+    win.webContents.on('preload-error', (_event, _path, error) => onFailure(error))
+    win.webContents.on('render-process-gone', (_event, details) => {
+      onFailure(new Error(`Compiler renderer exited: ${details.reason}`))
+    })
+    win.on('closed', () => onFailure(new Error('Compiler window closed unexpectedly')))
+    win.loadURL('data:text/html,<!doctype html><html></html>').catch(onFailure)
+  })
+}
+
+// Register readiness immediately, but only resolve it after the selected backend is usable.
+const initialized = app.whenReady().then(async () => {
+  if (process.env.ELECTRON_VITE_RENDERER === '1' || process.env.ELECTRON_VITE_RENDERER === 'true') {
+    await createRenderer()
+    parentRPC.register('compile', (...args) => rendererRPC.request('compile', ...args))
+  } else {
+    parentRPC.register('compile', compile)
+  }
+  return true
+})
+parentRPC.register('ready', () => initialized)
+initialized.catch(fail)
+
+process.on('message', message => {
+  if (message?.type === 'shutdown') {
+    stopping = true
+    app.quit()
+  } else {
+    void parentRPC.receive(message)
+  }
+})
+process.on('disconnect', () => {
+  stopping = true
+  app.quit()
+})
+app.on('before-quit', () => {
+  stopping = true
+  parentRPC.close()
+  rendererRPC?.close()
+})
+if (!process.send) fail(new Error('Bytecode compiler must be launched with an IPC channel'))

bin/electron-bytecode-preload.cjs

@@ -0,0 +1,10 @@
+const { ipcRenderer } = require('electron')
+const RpcPeer = require('./rpc-peer.cjs')
+const compile = require('./bytecode-compiler.cjs')
+
+const channel = 'electron-vite:bytecode:rpc'
+const rpc = new RpcPeer(message => ipcRenderer.send(channel, message))
+rpc.register('ready', () => true)
+rpc.register('compile', compile)
+ipcRenderer.on(channel, (_event, message) => void rpc.receive(message))
+ipcRenderer.send('electron-vite:bytecode:ready')

bin/rpc-peer.cjs

@@ -0,0 +1,89 @@
+// Transport-independent peer. Messages must be JSON serializable.
+class RpcPeer {
+  constructor(send, timeout = 30000) {
+    this.send = send
+    this.timeout = timeout
+    this.methods = new Map()
+    this.pending = new Map()
+    this.nextId = 0
+    this.closed = false
+  }
+
+  register(cmd, method) {
+    this.methods.set(cmd, method)
+    return this
+  }
+
+  request(cmd, ...args) {
+    if (this.closed) return Promise.reject(new Error('RPC connection is closed'))
+    const invocationId = this.nextId++
+    return new Promise((resolve, reject) => {
+      const timer = setTimeout(() => {
+        this.pending.delete(invocationId)
+        reject(new Error(`RPC request timed out: ${cmd}`))
+      }, this.timeout)
+      this.pending.set(invocationId, { resolve, reject, timer })
+      Promise.resolve()
+        .then(() => this.send({ type: 'request', invocationId, cmd, args }))
+        .catch(error => {
+          const pending = this.pending.get(invocationId)
+          if (!pending) return
+          clearTimeout(timer)
+          this.pending.delete(invocationId)
+          reject(error)
+        })
+    })
+  }
+
+  async receive(message) {
+    if (this.closed || !message || !Number.isSafeInteger(message.invocationId)) return
+    const { type, invocationId } = message
+    if (type === 'response') {
+      const pending = this.pending.get(invocationId)
+      if (!pending) return
+      this.pending.delete(invocationId)
+      clearTimeout(pending.timer)
+      if (message.error) {
+        const error = new Error(message.error.message)
+        error.name = message.error.name || 'Error'
+        if (message.error.stack) error.stack = message.error.stack
+        pending.reject(error)
+      } else {
+        pending.resolve(message.result)
+      }
+      return
+    }
+    if (type !== 'request' || typeof message.cmd !== 'string' || !Array.isArray(message.args)) return
+    const response = { type: 'response', invocationId }
+    try {
+      const method = this.methods.get(message.cmd)
+      if (!method) throw new Error(`Invalid method: ${message.cmd}`)
+      response.result = await method(...message.args)
+    } catch (error) {
+      response.error = {
+        name: error instanceof Error ? error.name : 'Error',
+        message: error instanceof Error ? error.message : String(error),
+        stack: error instanceof Error ? error.stack : undefined
+      }
+    }
+    if (!this.closed) {
+      try {
+        await this.send(response)
+      } catch (error) {
+        this.close(error)
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  close(error = new Error('RPC connection is closed')) {
+    this.closed = true
+    for (const pending of this.pending.values()) {
+      clearTimeout(pending.timer)
+      pending.reject(error)
+    }
+    this.pending.clear()
+    this.methods.clear()
+  }
+}
+
+module.exports = RpcPeer

src/plugins/bytecode.ts

@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
 import path from 'node:path'
-import { spawn } from 'node:child_process'
+import { randomBytes } from 'node:crypto'
 import { createRequire } from 'node:module'
 import colors from 'picocolors'
 import { type Plugin, type LibraryOptions, type Rolldown, normalizePath } from 'vite'
@@ -7,136 +7,67 @@ import * as babel from '@babel/core'
 import MagicString from 'magic-string'
 import { getElectronPath } from '../electron'
 import { toRelativePath } from '../utils'
+import { ElectronCompiler } from './electronCompiler'
 
 // Inspired by https://github.com/bytenode/bytenode
 
 const _require = createRequire(import.meta.url)
 
 function getBytecodeCompilerPath(): string {
-  return path.join(path.dirname(_require.resolve('electron-vite/package.json')), 'bin', 'electron-bytecode.cjs')
+  return path.join(path.dirname(_require.resolve('electron-vite/package.json')), 'bin', 'electron-bytecode-main.cjs')
 }
 
-function compileToBytecode(code: string): Promise<Buffer> {
+// Versioned envelope: magic/version (8), UTF-16 source length (4), module ID (16), V8 cache.
-  return new Promise((resolve, reject) => {
+// Keep our metadata separate from the private V8 cache header.
-    let data = Buffer.from([])
+async function compileToBytecode(compiler: ElectronCompiler, code: string): Promise<Buffer> {
-
+  const id = randomBytes(16)
-    const electronPath = getElectronPath()
+  // Reserve enough source space for an untruncated, per-artifact placeholder identity.
-    const bytecodePath = getBytecodeCompilerPath()
+  const source = code + '\n/*' + id.toString('hex') + '*/'
-
+  const result = await compiler.compile(source)
-    const proc = spawn(electronPath, [bytecodePath], {
+  const header = Buffer.alloc(28)
-      env: { ELECTRON_RUN_AS_NODE: '1' },
+  header.write('EVBC0001', 0, 'ascii')
-      stdio: ['pipe', 'pipe', 'pipe', 'ipc']
+  header.writeUInt32LE(result.sourceLength, 8)
-    })
+  id.copy(header, 12)
-
+  return Buffer.concat([header, Buffer.from(result.cachedData, 'base64')])
-    if (proc.stdin) {
-      proc.stdin.write(code)
-      proc.stdin.end()
-    }
-
-    if (proc.stdout) {
-      proc.stdout.on('data', chunk => {
-        data = Buffer.concat([data, chunk])
-      })
-      proc.stdout.on('error', err => {
-        console.error(err)
-      })
-      proc.stdout.on('end', () => {
-        resolve(data)
-      })
-    }
-
-    if (proc.stderr) {
-      proc.stderr.on('data', chunk => {
-        console.error('Error: ', chunk.toString())
-      })
-      proc.stderr.on('error', err => {
-        console.error('Error: ', err)
-      })
-    }
-
-    proc.addListener('message', message => console.log(message))
-    proc.addListener('error', err => console.error(err))
-
-    proc.on('error', err => reject(err))
-    proc.on('exit', () => {
-      resolve(data)
-    })
-  })
 }
 
 const bytecodeModuleLoaderCode = [
-  `"use strict";`,
+  '"use strict";',
-  `const fs = require("fs");`,
+  'const fs = require("node:fs");',
-  `const path = require("path");`,
+  'const path = require("node:path");',
-  `const vm = require("vm");`,
+  'const vm = require("node:vm");',
-  `const v8 = require("v8");`,
+  'const v8 = require("node:v8");',
-  `const Module = require("module");`,
+  'const Module = require("node:module");',
-  `v8.setFlagsFromString("--no-lazy");`,
+  'v8.setFlagsFromString("--no-lazy");',
-  `v8.setFlagsFromString("--no-flush-bytecode");`,
+  'v8.setFlagsFromString("--no-flush-bytecode");',
-  `const FLAG_HASH_OFFSET = 12;`,
+  'const params = ["exports", "require", "module", "__filename", "__dirname"];',
-  `const SOURCE_HASH_OFFSET = 8;`,
+  'Module._extensions[".jsc"] = Module._extensions[".cjsc"] = function (module, filename) {',
-  `let dummyBytecode;`,
+  '  const data = fs.readFileSync(filename);',
-  `function setFlagHashHeader(bytecodeBuffer) {`,
+  '  if (data.length <= 28 || data.toString("ascii", 0, 8) !== "EVBC0001") {',
-  `  if (!dummyBytecode) {`,
+  '    throw new Error("Invalid electron-vite bytecode format; rebuild the application: " + filename);',
-  `    const script = new vm.Script("", {`,
+  '  }',
-  `      produceCachedData: true`,
+  '  const length = data.readUInt32LE(8);',
-  `    });`,
+  '  const tag = "/*" + data.subarray(12, 28).toString("hex") + "*/";',
-  `    dummyBytecode = script.createCachedData();`,
+  '  if (length < tag.length || length > 0x1fffffff) {',
-  `  }`,
+  '    throw new Error("Invalid bytecode source length: " + filename);',
-  `  dummyBytecode.slice(FLAG_HASH_OFFSET, FLAG_HASH_OFFSET + 4).copy(bytecodeBuffer, FLAG_HASH_OFFSET);`,
+  '  }',
-  `};`,
+  '  const placeholder = tag + " ".repeat(length - tag.length);',
-  `function getSourceHashHeader(bytecodeBuffer) {`,
+  '  const compiledWrapper = vm.compileFunction(placeholder, params, {',
-  `  return bytecodeBuffer.slice(SOURCE_HASH_OFFSET, SOURCE_HASH_OFFSET + 4);`,
+  '    filename,',
-  `};`,
+  '    cachedData: data.subarray(28)',
-  `function buffer2Number(buffer) {`,
+  '  });',
-  `  let ret = 0;`,
+  '  if (compiledWrapper.cachedDataRejected) {',
-  `  ret |= buffer[3] << 24;`,
+  '    throw new Error("Invalid or incompatible cached data (cachedDataRejected): " + filename);',
-  `  ret |= buffer[2] << 16;`,
+  '  }',
-  `  ret |= buffer[1] << 8;`,
+  '  const require = function (id) { return module.require(id); };',
-  `  ret |= buffer[0];`,
+  '  require.resolve = function (request, options) {',
-  `  return ret;`,
+  '    return Module._resolveFilename(request, module, false, options);',
-  `};`,
+  '  };',
-  `Module._extensions[".jsc"] = Module._extensions[".cjsc"] = function (module, filename) {`,
+  '  if (process.mainModule) require.main = process.mainModule;',
-  `  const bytecodeBuffer = fs.readFileSync(filename);`,
+  '  require.extensions = Module._extensions;',
-  `  if (!Buffer.isBuffer(bytecodeBuffer)) {`,
+  '  require.cache = Module._cache;',
-  `    throw new Error("BytecodeBuffer must be a buffer object.");`,
+  '  return compiledWrapper.call(module.exports, module.exports, require, module, filename, path.dirname(filename));',
-  `  }`,
+  '};'
-  `  setFlagHashHeader(bytecodeBuffer);`,
-  `  const length = buffer2Number(getSourceHashHeader(bytecodeBuffer));`,
-  `  let dummyCode = "";`,
-  `  if (length > 1) {`,
-  `    dummyCode = "\\"" + "\\u200b".repeat(length - 2) + "\\"";`,
-  `  }`,
-  `  const script = new vm.Script(dummyCode, {`,
-  `    filename: filename,`,
-  `    lineOffset: 0,`,
-  `    displayErrors: true,`,
-  `    cachedData: bytecodeBuffer`,
-  `  });`,
-  `  if (script.cachedDataRejected) {`,
-  `    throw new Error("Invalid or incompatible cached data (cachedDataRejected)");`,
-  `  }`,
-  `  const require = function (id) {`,
-  `    return module.require(id);`,
-  `  };`,
-  `  require.resolve = function (request, options) {`,
-  `    return Module._resolveFilename(request, module, false, options);`,
-  `  };`,
-  `  if (process.mainModule) {`,
-  `    require.main = process.mainModule;`,
-  `  }`,
-  `  require.extensions = Module._extensions;`,
-  `  require.cache = Module._cache;`,
-  `  const compiledWrapper = script.runInThisContext({`,
-  `    filename: filename,`,
-  `    lineOffset: 0,`,
-  `    columnOffset: 0,`,
-  `    displayErrors: true`,
-  `  });`,
-  `  const dirname = path.dirname(filename);`,
-  `  const args = [module.exports, require, module, filename, dirname, process, global];`,
-  `  return compiledWrapper.apply(module.exports, args);`,
-  `};`
 ]
 
 const bytecodeChunkExtensionRE = /.(jsc|cjsc)$/
@@ -190,6 +121,7 @@ export function bytecodePlugin(options: BytecodeOptions = {}): Plugin | null {
   const bytecodeModuleLoader = 'bytecode-loader.cjs'
 
   let supported = false
+  let isPreload = false
 
   return {
     name: 'vite:bytecode',
@@ -199,7 +131,8 @@ export function bytecodePlugin(options: BytecodeOptions = {}): Plugin | null {
       if (supported) {
         return
       }
-      const useInRenderer = config.plugins.some(p => p.name === 'vite:electron-renderer-preset-config')
+      isPreload = config.plugins.some(p => p.name === 'vite:electron-preload-config-preset')
+      const useInRenderer = config.plugins.some(p => p.name === 'vite:electron-renderer-config-preset')
       if (useInRenderer) {
         config.logger.warn(colors.yellow('bytecodePlugin does not support renderer.'))
         return
@@ -253,8 +186,14 @@ export function bytecodePlugin(options: BytecodeOptions = {}): Plugin | null {
 
       const bundles = Object.keys(output)
 
-      await Promise.all(
+      const compiler = new ElectronCompiler({
-        bundles.map(async name => {
+        path: getElectronPath(),
+        args: [getBytecodeCompilerPath()],
+        env: { ELECTRON_VITE_RENDERER: isPreload ? '1' : '0' }
+      })
+      try {
+        await compiler.start()
+        for (const name of bundles) {
           const chunk = output[name]
           if (chunk.type === 'chunk') {
             let _code = chunk.code
@@ -274,7 +213,7 @@ export function bytecodePlugin(options: BytecodeOptions = {}): Plugin | null {
               }
             }
             if (bytecodeChunks.includes(name)) {
-              const bytecodeBuffer = await compileToBytecode(_code)
+              const bytecodeBuffer = await compileToBytecode(compiler, _code)
               this.emitFile({
                 type: 'asset',
                 fileName: name + 'c',
@@ -312,18 +251,21 @@ export function bytecodePlugin(options: BytecodeOptions = {}): Plugin | null {
                     for (const importerId of dynamicImporters) idsToHandle.add(importerId)
                   }
                 }
-                _code = hasBytecodeMoudle
+                if (hasBytecodeMoudle) {
-                  ? _code.replace(
+                  const loader = getBytecodeLoaderBlock(chunk.fileName)
-                      /("use strict";)|('use strict';)/,
+                  const strictRE = /^(#![^\n]*\n)?(["'])use strict\2;/
-                      `${useStrict}\n${getBytecodeLoaderBlock(chunk.fileName)}`
+                  _code = strictRE.test(_code)
-                    )
+                    ? _code.replace(strictRE, `$&\n${loader}`)
-                  : _code
+                    : _code.replace(/^(#![^\n]*\n)?/, `$&${loader}\n`)
+                }
               }
               chunk.code = _code
             }
           }
-        })
+        }
-      )
+      } finally {
+        await compiler.stop()
+      }
 
       if (bytecodeChunkCount && !_chunks.some(ass => ass.type === 'asset' && ass.fileName === bytecodeModuleLoader)) {
         this.emitFile({

src/plugins/electronCompiler.ts

@@ -0,0 +1,171 @@
+import { type ChildProcess, spawn } from 'node:child_process'
+
+export type ElectronCompilerOptions = {
+  path: string
+  args: string[]
+  env?: NodeJS.ProcessEnv
+  timeout?: number
+  shutdownTimeout?: number
+}
+
+export type BytecodeCompileResult = {
+  sourceLength: number
+  /** Base64-encoded V8 cachedData; decode with Buffer.from(cachedData, 'base64'). */
+  cachedData: string
+}
+
+type ElectronResponse = {
+  type: 'response'
+  invocationId: number
+  result?: unknown
+  error?: { name: string; message: string; stack?: string }
+}
+
+type PendingRequest = {
+  resolve: (value: unknown) => void
+  reject: (reason: Error) => void
+  timer: ReturnType<typeof setTimeout>
+}
+
+export class ElectronCompiler {
+  private ps?: ChildProcess
+  private rpcMap = new Map<number, PendingRequest>()
+  private invocationId = 0
+  private starting?: Promise<void>
+  private stopping?: Promise<void>
+  private ready = false
+
+  constructor(readonly options: ElectronCompilerOptions) {
+    for (const timeout of [options.timeout, options.shutdownTimeout]) {
+      if (timeout !== undefined && (!Number.isFinite(timeout) || timeout <= 0)) {
+        throw new RangeError('ElectronCompiler timeouts must be positive finite numbers')
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  start(): Promise<void> {
+    if (this.stopping) return Promise.reject(new Error('ElectronCompiler is stopping'))
+    if (this.starting) return this.starting
+    if (this.ready) return Promise.resolve()
+    if (this.ps) return Promise.reject(new Error('Previous Electron process has not closed; await stop() first'))
+    this.starting = this.initialize().finally(() => {
+      this.starting = undefined
+    })
+    return this.starting
+  }
+
+  private async initialize(): Promise<void> {
+    const env: NodeJS.ProcessEnv = { ...process.env, ...this.options.env, ELECTRON_VITE_RPC: 'true' }
+    delete env.ELECTRON_RUN_AS_NODE
+    const ps = spawn(this.options.path, this.options.args, {
+      stdio: ['ignore', 'inherit', 'inherit', 'ipc'],
+      windowsHide: true,
+      env
+    })
+    this.ps = ps
+    ps.on('message', (message: ElectronResponse) => {
+      if (this.ps !== ps || !message || message.type !== 'response') return
+      const pending = this.rpcMap.get(message.invocationId)
+      if (!pending) return
+      clearTimeout(pending.timer)
+      this.rpcMap.delete(message.invocationId)
+      if (message.error) {
+        const error = new Error(message.error.message)
+        error.name = message.error.name
+        if (message.error.stack) error.stack = message.error.stack
+        pending.reject(error)
+      } else pending.resolve(message.result)
+    })
+    ps.on('error', error => {
+      if (this.ps === ps) this.rejectPending(error)
+    })
+    ps.on('disconnect', () => {
+      if (this.ps === ps) this.rejectPending(new Error('Electron IPC disconnected'))
+    })
+    ps.on('exit', (code, signal) => {
+      if (this.ps === ps) this.rejectPending(new Error('Electron exited (code ' + code + ', signal ' + signal + ')'))
+    })
+    ps.on('close', () => {
+      if (this.ps === ps) {
+        this.rejectPending(new Error('Electron process closed'))
+        this.ps = undefined
+      }
+    })
+    try {
+      await this.sendRequest('ready', [])
+      if (!ps.connected || this.stopping) throw new Error('Electron stopped during initialization')
+      this.ready = true
+    } catch (error) {
+      await this.stop()
+      throw error
+    }
+  }
+
+  compile(code: string): Promise<BytecodeCompileResult> {
+    return this.request<BytecodeCompileResult>('compile', code)
+  }
+
+  async request<T = unknown>(cmd: string, ...args: unknown[]): Promise<T> {
+    if (!this.ready || this.stopping) throw new Error('ElectronCompiler is not ready; await start() first')
+    return this.sendRequest(cmd, args) as Promise<T>
+  }
+
+  private sendRequest(cmd: string, args: unknown[]): Promise<unknown> {
+    const ps = this.ps
+    if (!ps?.connected) return Promise.reject(new Error('Electron IPC is not connected'))
+    const invocationId = this.invocationId++
+    return new Promise((resolve, reject) => {
+      const fail = (error: Error): void => {
+        const pending = this.rpcMap.get(invocationId)
+        if (!pending) return
+        clearTimeout(pending.timer)
+        this.rpcMap.delete(invocationId)
+        reject(error)
+      }
+      const timer = setTimeout(() => fail(new Error('Electron RPC timed out: ' + cmd)), this.options.timeout ?? 30000)
+      this.rpcMap.set(invocationId, { resolve, reject, timer })
+      try {
+        ps.send({ type: 'request', invocationId, cmd, args }, error => {
+          if (error) fail(error)
+        })
+      } catch (error) {
+        fail(error instanceof Error ? error : new Error(String(error)))
+      }
+    })
+  }
+
+  private rejectPending(error: Error): void {
+    this.ready = false
+    for (const pending of this.rpcMap.values()) {
+      clearTimeout(pending.timer)
+      pending.reject(error)
+    }
+    this.rpcMap.clear()
+  }
+
+  stop(): Promise<void> {
+    if (this.stopping) return this.stopping
+    this.rejectPending(new Error('ElectronCompiler stopped'))
+    const ps = this.ps
+    if (!ps) return Promise.resolve()
+    this.stopping = new Promise<void>(resolve => {
+      const timer = setTimeout(() => ps.kill('SIGKILL'), this.options.shutdownTimeout ?? 3000)
+      ps.once('close', () => {
+        clearTimeout(timer)
+        resolve()
+      })
+      if (ps.connected) {
+        try {
+          ps.send({ type: 'shutdown' }, error => {
+            if (error) ps.kill()
+          })
+        } catch {
+          ps.kill()
+        }
+      } else ps.kill()
+    }).finally(() => {
+      this.stopping = undefined
+    })
+    return this.stopping
+  }
+}